Responding to religious claims in a secular democracy: the Turkish case.

• Author: Uluc, Ozlem
• Position: COMMENTARY - Essay

Despite the homogenizing of ideology and policy implementation since the formation of a secular nation in Turkey, the multiethnic, multilingual and multicultural societal legacy that the country inherited from the Ottoman Empire has continued to survive. The state ideology has permeated art, culture, education and the media, in addition to Turkish bureaucracy and the military, especially under the single party regime and within the political landscape following military interventions. Prior to the rise of the AK Party, the state either remained indifferent, or denied claims inspired by religious groups. In cases where the state showed some interest in such claims, only small progress was made, and no fundamental issues regarding the freedom of religion and representation were resolved for many years. Against this background this article has two objectives. First it will follow the trajectory of the development of secularism in Turkey as a Muslim majority society where there are also a meaningful number of unorthodox Muslims and other religious minorities. To this end, I will try to analyze the challenges that the modern Turkish state faces in the context of claims made by religious minorities. Second, I will demonstrate how the state has generally responded to demands and claims coming from its minority group citizens.

Now, let us try to put Turkey into a context in terms of secularization, which has received increasing attention in sociology and political science. This will allow us to see how far the dominant secularization theory can explain what Turkey has been experiencing. Classical secularization theory is based on the hypothesis that modernization would lead to a decline in traditional forms of religious life. It also predicts that religion would lose its influence on social and individual consciousness and eventually disappear. (2) However, not all of the predictions of this theory have come through, especially outside of Europe, which is seen as an exception when it comes to the social and political effects of secularization. What should also be noticed in this context is the fact that religion in Turkey actually became more visible in the process of the country's modernization, largely due to the opening of a new window of opportunity to raise claims for religious rights and the freedom of religion amidst the process of becoming a democratic society and state. As such, the presence of religious groups in Turkey's public and political spheres, and the wish of such groups to be represented and treated equally, has led to a reconsideration of the relations between the state and its citizens.

Although there are different definitions and interpretations of secularism, broadly speaking there are two basic dimensions of this concept, as developed by Bryan Turner, Veit Bader, Jose Casanova, Charles Taylor and Jocelyn Maclure. (3) The first dimension refers to the principle of secularization, which means political secularization referring to the separation of state and religion. We can also refer to this aspect of secularization as a normative (i.e. legal and administrative) dimension (as a political system). Political secularization as such includes not only the separation of religion and state, but also the equal application of political authority to all religions. Protection of the freedom of religion is a fundamental principle of political secularization. The second dimension of secularization refers to a process, which means a decline of religious beliefs and practices in society. Sociologists and political scientists consider this process as one of social secularization, which leads to the erosion of the influence of religion on social practices.

Although the ideal denoted by the classical understanding of secularization raises some expectations with regard to state neutrality toward all religions on the one hand, and the inevitable decline of individual and collective religiosity on the other hand, the social reality on the ground tells us that some of these expectations remained unfulfilled. It is true that Northern European countries in particular have felt the impact of social and political secularization to a large extent. However, when it comes to some non-Western societies, such as those found in Middle Eastern, Asian and South American countries, modernization and secularization have taken different forms. India, Turkey, Israel and the U.S., for example, went through a process of modernization and secularization in contrast to that of Europe. One might argue that in those non-European countries, religious beliefs and institutions are still influential. (4)

The persistence of religions and the claims of religious people in modern societies or nation-states forces us to re-think how we can address questions regarding state-religion relations on the one hand, and religion in the public sphere on the other hand, especially in countries like Turkey where there has been a constant tension between secular and religious forces. As the ongoing political developments in Turkey indicate, a new situation is emerging, characterized by complex relations regarding state, religion, secularism and the presence of faith groups with different claims in the public sphere. I believe that the case of Turkey can shed some light on the process of non-European secularization occurring globally.

In political debates as well as academic and media discourses, Turkey is frequently referred to as a source of inspiration for movements and countries seeking to establish democratic and civil regimes, because of Turkey's experience with secularism and democracy coupled with economic progress, political stability and the co-existence of different ethnic, sectarian and religious groups. For sociologists and political scientists, Turkey provides rich material to engage in a debate over state-religion relations and the presence of religious claims in the public sphere. Turkey offers a unique opportunity to examine the question of religion in the public sphere as a case study for several reasons. First, it is a secular country with a dominant Muslim population; second, Turkey seeks to become a full member of the European Union, and at the same time, is part of the larger Middle East, where Islamic culture is the prevailing force. Third, questions of democratization, such as the freedom of religion for unorthodox believers and...